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Could two similar signatures be copies of the same image? What does a scan leave out? Start with a question, explore an example and see how far the evidence takes you.
Encyclopedia (55)
A disputed cheque signature in Israeli enforcement proceedings
Is the dispute about the drawer’s signature, an endorsement on the reverse or an entry on the front?
Forensic handwriting and documents in legal disputesA disputed signature on a contract
Which records help establish who signed a lease or sale agreement?
Forensic handwriting and documents in legal disputesA disputed signature on a personal guarantee
How do you distinguish the borrower’s signature from the guarantor’s on the same form?
Forensic methodsA possible image composite
A rectangular boundary around a signature is a visual observation whose origin needs investigation.
Forensic handwriting and documents in legal disputesA power of attorney in dispute: who signed, and what was authorised?
In a property matter, the identity of the signer and the scope of the power raise separate questions.
Worked examplesA repeated signature on two forms
Establish what repeats and what an overlap can show.
Forensic methodsAn inconclusive examination
An examiner may be unable to reach a conclusion about the writer.
Handwriting and graphologyBaseline direction
The baseline is an imaginary guide supporting the bodies of letters.
Imaging and preservationCapturing the whole page
A full-page view records context. A separate close-up records detail.
Handwriting and graphologyChoosing comparison samples
A useful sample has a known writer and contains material comparable with the questioned passage.
Worked examplesCollecting signatures to compare with a will
Choose reference material whose origin is independent of the dispute.
Forensic methodsComparing inks
A photographed colour records only one aspect of a pen line.
Worked examplesComparing two versions of a contract
Record a change in payment terms even when the page breaks differ.
Worked examplesComparing writing in different scripts
Material from one person can contain handwriting of quite different kinds.
Handwriting and graphologyConnections and pen lifts
A visible gap and an actual pen lift are not necessarily the same event.
Handwriting and graphologyDisguised handwriting
Disguise means that the writer deliberately altered their writing. Distinguishing it from natural change requires care.
Forensic handwriting and documents in legal disputesFraming questions for a handwriting expert in litigation
An answerable question identifies the signature, the comparison material and the limitations that need explaining.
Forensic methodsFreehand simulation and tracing
These are distinct possible ways a signature might be produced.
Handwriting and graphologyGraphology and personality claims
Graphology associates handwriting with personality. Each proposed link needs an independent test of its predictive value.
Handwriting and graphologyGraphology in employee selection
The historical use of handwriting in hiring raises a testable question.
Research and articlesHow accurate are expert handwriting comparisons?
In a 2022 study by Hicklin and colleagues, 86 document examiners compared handwriting from writers known to the researchers. Examiners could qualify a conclusion or leave the question unresolved.
Imaging and preservationImage formats and compression
The way an image is saved affects what remains available for comparison.
Forensic methodsImage overlays
Superimposing two regions helps locate agreement and disagreement between outlines.
Forensic methodsIndented writing
Pressure from writing may leave marks on a sheet underneath.
Handwriting and graphologyLetter size and proportions
Absolute height and the proportions within a letter are separate observations.
Handwriting and graphologyLetter slant
Slant describes the angle of strokes relative to the writing line.
Imaging and preservationLighting and reflections
A reflection can hide part of a line even when that part is present on the paper.
Handwriting and graphologyLine quality
Examiners consider how a stroke travels, breaks and changes along its path. With a photograph the first question is which details the image actually retains.
Imaging and preservationMetadata and dates
A single file can carry several dates, each associated with a different event.
Handwriting and graphologyNatural variation in handwriting
A person may form one letter several ways even within one sentence. Comparison needs a range of examples rather than the nearest match.
Forensic handwriting and documents in legal disputesObjecting to probate when a signature is disputed
First establish whether the application is pending or an order has already been issued.
Handwriting and graphologyObservation and interpretation
Good notes let another reader locate the detail, understand what was examined and see the limits of the inference.
Forensic methodsPaper, edges and watermarks
The sheet can carry information that is lost in a copy.
Imaging and preservationPDF files and OCR layers
Text copied from a PDF may have been generated by automatic recognition.
Imaging and preservationPerspective distortion
Camera angle can change the apparent proportions of a page.
Worked examplesPhotographing a printout of a scan
Reconstruct the copying sequence when a stroke looks broken.
Worked examplesPreparing a brief for a document examiner
Bring a focused question, an item list and information about provenance.
Imaging and preservationRecording provenance and custody
A transfer record explains how a file arrived and what happened to it afterwards.
Forensic methodsReferring an original to an examiner
A focused question helps determine which materials to submit and how to plan the examination.
Imaging and preservationResolution and sharpness
Pixel count alone does not determine whether an image is fit for comparison.
Forensic methodsSequence at a crossing
The order of two strokes is a question about the specific place where they meet.
Handwriting and graphologyShort signatures and initials
An abbreviated signature can contain few movements to compare. The first question is how much information it carries.
Forensic handwriting and documents in legal disputesThe handwriting in a will and the signature below it
A disputed word and a disputed signature may require different comparison material.
Judgments and documented storiesThe mistakes that gave away the Hitler diaries
Why would a private diary repeat the errors of an editor compiling speeches?
Research and articlesThe same signature on two documents: what actually matches?
A shared source can sometimes be investigated even when authorship and permission remain unknown.
Judgments and documented storiesThe signature was forged. Why did the son keep his designation?
Krayot Family Court, Israel, case 54320-01-15 and related proceedings, 28 January 2021.
Imaging and preservationValidating a digital signature
A certificate-based signature is checked in the signed file using a validation tool.
Forensic handwriting and documents in legal disputesWas a page replaced in a signed contract?
A new clause appears before the signature page. How can you trace which version it belonged to?
Judgments and documented storiesWhat changed when a third original of the will turned up?
Another original reached the examiner. His qualified opinion remained the same. What did the judge do with the remaining doubt?
Worked examplesWhen an invoice has different bank details
Separate the difference in the files from the identity of whoever changed them.
Forensic handwriting and documents in legal disputesWhen only a photographed will survives
Preserve the copy and document the search for the original.
Handwriting and graphologyWhich hand held the pen?
Signature slant alone cannot identify the writing hand.
Handwriting and graphologyWord and letter spacing
Gaps between words and gaps inside a word are different measurements.
Worked examplesWriting a finding in a preliminary report
Make the observation, alternative explanations and missing material clear.
Handwriting and graphologyWriting systems and languages
Writing systems differ in how signs are formed and joined. Start by identifying the script actually used in each document.
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